Fundamentals of Professional Welding

Before you start to weld, ensure that you have all the required equipment and accessories. Listed below are some additional welding rules that should be followed.

The widest range of arc welding is done with electrodes in the mild steel group.

Electrodes are manufactured for use in specific positions and for many different types of metal. They also are specially designed to use with ac or dc welding machines. Some manufacturer’s electrodes work iden-tically on either ac or dc, while others are best suited for flat-position welding. Another type is made primarily for vertical and overhead welding, and some can be used in any position. As you can see, electrode selection depends on many variables.

Types of Electrodes
Electrodes are classified as either bare or shielded. The original bare electrodes were exactly as their name implied—bare. Today, they have a light covering, but even with this improvement they are rarely used because of their limitations. They are difficult to weld with, produce brittle welds, and have low strength. Just about all welding is done with shielded electrodes.

The shielded electrode has a heavy coating of sev-eral chemicals, such as cellulose, titania sodium, low-hydrogen sodium, or iron powder. Each of the chemicals in the coating serves a particular function in the welding process. In general, their main purposes are to induce easier arc starting, stabilize the arc, improve weld appearance and penetration, reduce spatter, and protect the molten metal from oxidation or contamination by the surrounding atmosphere.

As molten metal is deposited in the welding process, it attracts oxygen and nitrogen. Since the arc stream takes place in the atmosphere, oxidation occurs while the metal passes from the electrode to the work. When this happens, the strength and ductility of the weld are reduced as well as the resistance to corrosion. The coating on the electrode prevents oxidation from taking place. As the electrode melts, the heavy coating releases an inert gas around the molten metal that excludes the atmosphere from the weld (fig. 7-7).

The burning residue of the coating forms a slag over the deposited metal that slows down the cooling rate and produces a more ductile weld. Some coatings include powdered iron that is converted to steel by the intense heat of the arc as it flows into the weld deposit.

Electrode Identification
Electrodes are often referred to by a manufacturer’s trade name. The American Welding Society (AWS) and the American Society foresting and Materials (ASTM) have set up certain requirements for electrodes to assure some degree of uniformity in manufacturing electrodes. Thus different manufacturer’s electrodes that are within the classification established by the AWS and ASTM should have the same welding characteristics. (See fig. 7-8.)

In this classification, each type of electrode is assigned a specific symbol, such as E-6010, E-7010, and E-8010. The prefix E identifies the electrode for electric-arc welding. The first two digits in the symbol The fourth digit of the symbol represents special designate the minimum allowable tensile strength in characteristics of the electrode, such as weld quality, thousands of pounds per square inch of the deposited type of current, and amount of penetration. The numbers weld metal. For example, the 60-series electrodes have range from 0 through 8. Since the welding position is a minimum tensile strength of 60,000 pounds per square dependent on the manufacturer’s characteristics of the inch, while the 70-series electrodes have a strength of coating, the third and fourth numbers are often identified 70,000 pounds per square inch.

The third digit of the symbol indicates the joint position for which the electrode is designed. Two numbers are used for this purpose: 1 and 2. Number 1 designates an electrode that can be used for welding in any position. Number 2 represents an electrode restricted for welding in the horizontal and flat positions only.

The fourth digit of the symbol represents special characteristics of the electrode, such as weld quality, type of current, and amount of penetration. The numbers range from 0 through 8. Since the welding position is dependent on the manufacturer’s characteristics of the coating, the third and fourth numbers are often identified together.

Electrode Selection
Several factors are critical when you choose an electrode for welding. The welding position is particularly significant. Table 7-2 shows the recommended current types and welding positions for the most common electrodes.

As a rule of thumb, you should never use an electrode that has a diameter larger than the thickness of the metal that you are welding. Some operators prefer larger electrodes because they permit faster travel, but this takes a lot of expedience to produce certified welds.

Position and the type of joint are also factors in determining the size of the electrode. For example, in a thick-metal section with a narrow vee, a small-diameter electrode is always used to run the frost weld or root pass. This is done to ensure full penetration at the root of the weld. Successive passes are then made with larger electrodes.

For vertical and overhead welding, 3/16 inch is the largest diameter electrode that you should use regardless of plate thickness. Larger electrodes make it too difficult to control the deposited metal. For economy, you should always use the largest electrode that is practical for the work It takes about one half of the time to deposit an equal quantity of weld metal from 1/4-inch electrodes as it does from 3/16-inch electrodes of the same type. The larger sizes not only allow the use of higher currents but also require fewer stops to change electrodes.

Deposit rate and joint preparation are also important in the selection of an electrode. Electrodes for welding mild steel can be classified as fast freeze, fill freeze, and fast fill. FAST-FREEZE electrodes produce a snappy, deep penetrating arc and fast-freezing deposits. They are commonly called reverse-polarity electrodes, even though some can be used on ac. These electrodes have little slag and produce flat beads. They are widely used for all-position welding for both fabrication and repair work.

FILL-FREEZE electrodes have a moderately force-ful arc and a deposit rate between those of the fast-freeze and fast-fill electrodes. They are commonly called the straight-polarity electrodes, even though they may be used on ac. These electrodes have complete slag coverage and weld deposits with distinct, even ripples. They are the general-purpose electrode for a production shop and are also widely used for repair work They can be used in all positions, but fast-freeze electrodes are still preferred for vertical and overhead welding.

Among the FAST-FILL electrodes are the heavy-coated, iron powder electrodes with a soft arc and fast deposit rate. These electrodes have a heavy slag and produce exceptionally smooth weld deposits. They are generally used for production welding where the work is positioned for flat welding.

Another group of electrodes are the low-hydrogen type that were developed for welding high-sulfur and high-carbon steel. These electrodes produce X-ray quality deposits by reducing the absorption of hydrogen that causes porosity and cracks under the weld bead.

Welding stainless steel requires an electrode con-taining chromium and nickel. All stainless steels have low-thermal conductivity that causes electrode over-heating and improper arc action when high currents are used. In the base metal, it causes large temperature differentials between the weld and the rest of the work, which warps the plate. A basic rule in welding stainless steel is to avoid high currents and high heat. Another reason for keeping the weld cool is to avoid carbon corrosion.

There are also many special-purpose electrodes for surfacing and welding copper and copper alloys, alu-minum, cast iron, manganese, nickel alloys, and nickel-manganese steels. The composition of these electrodes is designed to match the base metal. The basic rule in selecting electrodes is to pick one that is similar in composition to the base metal.

Electrode Storage
Electrodes are expensive; therefore, the loss or de-terioration through improper handling or storage can become very costly. Always store them in a dry place at room temperature with 50-percent maximum relative humidity. Moisture causes the coating on electrodes to disintegrate and fall off. Low-hydrogen rods are espe-cially sensitive to moisture. After removing these rods from their original packaging, you should store them in a storage space maintained at a temperature between 250°F to 400°F. Portable or stationary drying ovens are used to store and preserve electrodes at specified tem-peratures. Care should be taken when handling elec-trodes because bumping or dropping them can cause the coatings to fall off, rendering the rod useless.

Polarity
Earlier in this chapter, ac and dc current was briefly covered. With ac welding machines, polarity is not a problem. When using dc welding machines, you can weld with either straight polarity or reverse polarity.

Polarity is the direction of the current flow in a circuit, as shown in figure 7-9. In straight polarity, the electrode is negative and the workpiece positive; the electrons flow from the electrode to the workpiece. In reverse polarity, the electrode is positive and the work-piece negative; the electrons flow from the workpiece to the electrode. To help you remember the difference, think of straight polarity as a SENator and reverse polarity as a REPresentative. Use only the first three letters of each key word. SEN stands for Straight Electrode Negative; REP for Reverse Electrode Positive.

On some of the older machines, polarity is changed by switching cables. On many of the newer machines, the polarity can be changed by turning a switch on the machine.

Polarity affects the amount of heat going into the base metal. By changing polarity, you can direct the amount of heat to where it is needed. When you use straight polarity, the majority of the heat is directed toward the workpiece. When you use reverse polarity, the heat is concentrated on the electrode. In some weld-ing situations, it is desirable to have more heat on the workpiece because of its size and the need for more heat to melt the base metal than the electrode; therefore, when making large heavy deposits, you should use STRAIGHT POLARITY.

On the other hand, in overhead welding it is neces-sary to rapidly freeze the filler metal so the force of gravity will not cause it to fall. When you use REVERSE POLARITY, less heat is concentrated at the workpiece. This allows the filler metal to cool faster, giving it greater holding power. Cast-iron arc welding is another good example of the need to keep the workpiece cool; reverse polarity permits the deposits from the electrode to be applied rapidly while preventing overheating in the base metal.

In general, straight polarity is used for all mild steel, bare, or lightly coated electrodes. With these types of electrodes, the majority of heat is developed at the positive side of the current, the workpiece. However, when heavy-coated electrodes are used, the gases given off in the arc may alter the heat conditions so the opposite is true and the greatest heat is produced on the negative side. Electrode coatings affect the heat condi-tions differently. One type of heavy coating may provide the most desirable heat balance with straight polarity, while another type of coating on the same electrode may provide a more desirable heat balance with reverse polarity.

Reverse polarity is used in the welding of nonferrous metals, such as aluminum, bronze, Monel, and nickel. Reverse polarity is also used with some types of electrodes for making vertical and overhead welds.

You can recognize the proper polarity for a given electrode by the sharp, crackling sound of the arc. The wrong polarity causes the arc to emit a hissing sound, and the welding bead is difficult to control.

One disadvantage of direct-current welding is “arc blow.” As stated earlier, arc blow causes the arc to wander while you are welding in corners on heavy metal or when using large-coated electrodes. Direct current flowing through the electrode, workpiece, and ground clamp generates a magnetic field around each of these units. This field can cause the arc to deviate from the intended path. The arc is usually deflected forward or backward along the line of travel and may cause exces-sive spatter and incomplete fusion. It also has the tendency to pull atmospheric gases into the arc, resulting in porosity.

Arc blow can often be corrected by one of the following methods: by changing the position of the ground clamp, by welding away from the ground clamp, or by changing the position of the workpiece.

STARTING THE ARC
Two basic methods are used for starting the arc: the STRIKING or BRUSHING method (fig. 7-10) and the TAPPING method (fig. 7-11). In either method, the arc is started by short circuiting the welding current between the electrode and the work surface. The surge of high current causes the end of the electrode and a small spot on the base metal beneath the electrode to melt instantly.

In the STRIKING or BRUSHING method, the electrode is brought down to the work with a lateral motion similar to striking a match. As soon as the electrode touches the work surface, it must be raised to establish the arc (fig. 7-10). The arc length or gap between the end of the electrode and the work should be equal to the diameter of the electrode. When the proper arc length is obtained, it produces a sharp, crackling sound.

In the TAPPING method, you hold the electrode in a vertical position to the surface of the work. The arc is started by tapping or bouncing it on the work surface and then raising it to a distance equal to the diameter of the electrode (fig. 7-11). When the proper length of arc is established, a sharp, crackling sound is heard.

When the electrode is withdrawn too slowly with either of the starting methods described above, it will stick or freeze to the plate or base metal. If this occurs, you can usually free the electrode by a quick sideways wrist motion to snap the end of the electrode from the plate. If this method fails, immediately release the elec-trode from the holder or shutoff the welding machine. Use a light blow with a chipping hammer or a chisel to free the electrode from the base metal.

CAUTION

NEVER remove your helmet or the shield from your eyes as long as there is any possibility that the electrode could produce an arc.

After you strike the arc, the end of the electrode melts and flows into the molten crater of the base metal. To compensate for this loss of metal, you must adjust the length of the arc. Unless you keep moving the electrode closer to the base metal, the length of the arc will increase. An arc that is too long will have a hum-ming type of sound. One that is too short makes a popping noise. When the electrode is fed down to the plate and along the surface at a constant rate, a bead of metal is deposited or welded onto the surface of the base metal. After striking the arc, hold it for a short time at the starting point to ensure good fusion and crater deposition. Good arc welding depends upon the control of the motion of the electrode along the surface of the base metal.

Setting the Current
The amount of current used during a welding opera-tion depends primarily upon the diameter of the electrode. As a rule, higher currents and larger diameter electrodes are better for welding in the flat position than the vertical or overhead position. Manufacturers of electrodes usually specify a current range for each type and size of electrode; this information is normally found on the face of the electrode container.

Since most recommended current settings are only approximate, final current settings and adjustments need to be made during the welding operation. For example, when the recommended current range for an electrode is 90-100 amperes, the usual practice is to set the controls midway between the two limits, or at 95 amperes. After starting the weld, make your final adjust-ments by either increasing or decreasing the current.

When the current is too high, the electrode melts faster and the molten puddle will be excessively large and irregular. High current also leaves a groove in the base metal along both sides of the weld. This is called undercutting, and an example is shown in figure 7-12, view C

With current that is too low, there is not enough heat to melt the base metal and the molten pool will be too small. The result is poor fusion and a irregular shaped deposit that piles up, as shown in figure 7-12, view B. This piling up of molten metal is called overlap. The molten metal from the electrode lays on the work without penetrating the base metal. Both undercutting and overlapping result in poor welds, as shown in figure 7-13.

When the electrode, current, and polarity are correct, a good arc produces a sharp, crackling sound. When any of these conditions are incorrect, the arc produces a steady, hissing sound, such as steam escaping.

Length of Arc
When an arc is too long, the metal melts off the electrode in large globules and the arc may break fre-quently. This produces a wide, spattered, and irregular deposit with insufficient fusion between the base metal and the weld (fig. 7-12, view F).

When an arc is too short, it fails to generate enough heat to melt the base metal properly, causes the electrode

to stick frequently to the base metal, and produces uneven deposits with irregular ripples. The recom-mended length of the arc is equal to the diameter of the bare end of the electrode, as shown in figure 7-14.

The length of the arc depends upon the type of electrode and the type of welding being done; therefore, for smaller diameter electrodes, a shorter arc is neces-sary than for larger electrodes. Remember: the length of the arc should be about equal to the diameter of the bare electrode except when welding in the vertical or over-head position. In either position, a shorter arc is desir-able because it gives better control of the molten puddle and prevents atmospherical impurities from entering the weld.

Electrode Angle
The angle at which you hold the electrode greatly affects the shape of the weld bead which is very impor-tant in fillet and deep groove welding. The electrode angle consists of two positions: work angle and travel angle. Work angle is the angle from the horizontal measured at right angles to the direction of welding (fig, 7-15). Travel angle is the angle in the direction of welding and may vary from 5 to 30 degrees, depending on the welder’s choice and conditions (fig. 7-16).

Work angle is especially important in multiple-pass fillet welding. Normally, a small variance of the work angle will not affect the appearance or quality of a weld; however, when undercuts occur in the vertical section of a fillet weld, the angle of the arc should be lowered and the electrode directed more toward the vertical section.

Travel Speed
Travel speed is the rate at which the electrode travels along a weld seam. The maximum speed of welding depends on the skill of the operator, the position of the weld, the type of electrode, and the required joint penetration.

Normally, when the travel speed is too fast, the molten pool cools too quickly, locking in impurities and causing the weld bead to be narrow with pointed ripples, as shown in figure 7-12, view D. On the other hand, if the travel speed is too slow, the metal deposit piles up excessively and the weld is high and wide, as shown in figure 7-12, view E. In most cases, the limiting factor is the highest speed that produces a satisfactory surface appearance of a normal weld, as shown in figure 7-12, view A.

Breaking the Arc
The most commonly used method to break the arc is to hold the electrode stationary until the crater is filled and then slowly withdraw the electrode. This method reduces the possibilities of crater cracks.

Reestablishing the Arc
When it becomes necessary to reestablish the arc (as in a long weld that requires the use of more than one electrode), the crater must first be cleaned before striking the arc. Strike the tip of the new electrode at the forward (cold) end of the crater and establish an arc. Move the arc backward over the crater, and then move forward again and continue the weld. This procedure fills the crater and prevents porosity and slag inclusions.

Peening
Peening is a procedure that involves lightly hammering a weld as it cools. This process aids in relieving built-up stresses and preventing surface cracking in the joint area; however, peening should be done with care because excess hammering can work harden and in-crease stresses in the weld. This condition leads to weld embrittlement and early failure. Some welds are covered by specific codes that prohibit peening so you should check the weld specification before peening.